Natural Sciences

Brain, the mass of nerve tissue in the anterior end of an organism. The brain integrates sensory information and directs motor responses; in higher vertebrates it is also the centre of learning. (See nervous system, human.)

Lateral view of the right cerebral hemisphere of the human brain, shown in situ within the skull. A number of convolutions (called gyri) and fissures (called sulci) in the surface define four lobes—the parietal, frontal, temporal, and occipital—that contain major functional areas of the brain.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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human nervous system: The brain

The brain weighs about 1,500 grams (3 pounds) and constitutes about 2 percent of total body weight. It consists of three major divisions: (1) the massive paired hemispheres of the cerebrum, (2) the brainstem, consisting of the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus, midbrain, pons, and…

In lower vertebrates the brain is tubular and resembles an early developmental stage of the brain in higher vertebrates. It consists of three distinct regions: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. Although the brain of higher vertebrates undergoes considerable modification during embryonic development, these three regions are still discernible.

The hindbrain is composed of the medulla oblongata and the pons. The medulla transmits signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain; it also controls such autonomic functions as heartbeat and respiration. The pons is partly made up of tracts connecting the spinal cord with higher brain levels, and it also contains cell groups that transfer information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum.

human brain; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)An image of the human brain produced using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).© Hemera/Thinkstock

The midbrain, the upper portion of which evolved from the optic lobes, is the main centre of sensory integration in fish and amphibians. It also is involved with integration in reptiles and birds. In mammals the midbrain is greatly reduced, serving primarily as a connecting link between the hindbrain and the forebrain.

Connected to the medulla, pons, and midbrain by large bundles of fibres is the cerebellum. Relatively large in humans, this “little brain” controls balance and coordination by producing smooth, coordinated movements of muscle groups.

The forebrain includes the cerebral hemispheres and, under these, the brainstem, which contains the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is the main relay centre between the medulla and the cerebrum; the hypothalamus is an important control centre for sex drive, pleasure, pain, hunger, thirst, blood pressure, body temperature, and other visceral functions. The hypothalamus produces hormones that control the secretions of the anterior pituitary gland, and it also produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone, which are stored in and released by the posterior pituitary gland.

The cerebrum, originally functioning as part of the olfactory lobes, is involved with the more complex functions of the human brain. In humans and other advanced vertebrates, the cerebrum has grown over the rest of the brain, forming a convoluted (wrinkled) layer of gray matter. The degree of convolution is partly dependent on the size of the body. Small mammals (e.g., lesser anteater, marmoset) generally have smooth brains, and large mammals (e.g., whale, elephant, dolphin) generally have highly convoluted ones.

The cerebral hemispheres are separated by a deep groove, the longitudinal cerebral fissure. At the base of this fissure lies a thick bundle of nerve fibres, called the corpus callosum, which provides a communication link between the hemispheres. The left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and vice versa, because of a crossing of the nerve fibres in the medulla or, less commonly, in the spinal cord. Although the right and left hemispheres are mirror images of one another in many ways, there are important functional distinctions. In most people, for example, the areas that control speech are located in the left hemisphere, while areas that control spatial perceptions are located in the right hemisphere.

Medial view of the left hemisphere of the human brain.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

split-brain syndromeA structure known as the corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and enables communication between them. Dysfunction or absence of this structure can result in a condition known as split-brain syndrome, in which each hemisphere of the brain functions independently. Split-brain syndrome is associated with conditions such as alien-hand syndrome, which is characterized by involuntary and uncoordinated yet purposeful movement of the hands.Science in Seconds (www.scienceinseconds.com)

Two major furrows—the central sulcus and the lateral sulcus—divide each cerebral hemisphere into four sections: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The central sulcus, also known as the fissure of Rolando, also separates the cortical motor area (which is anterior to the fissure) from the cortical sensory area (which is posterior to the fissure). Starting from the top of the hemisphere, the upper regions of the motor and sensory areas control the lower parts of the body, and the lower regions of the motor and sensory areas control the upper parts of the body. Other functional areas of the cerebral hemispheres have been identified, including the visual cortex in the occipital lobe and the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. A large amount of the primate cortex, however, is devoted to no specific motor or sensory function; this so-called association cortex is apparently involved in higher mental activities.